War Ends 207 Years Ago, Christmas Eve December 24, 1814

From the December 24, 2021, We Are the Mighty "Today in military history:  War of 1812 ends."

On December 24, 1814, the War of 1812 came to an end with the signing of the Treaty of  Peace and Amity in Ghent, Belgium, between the United Kingdom and the United States.

The conflict began in 1812.  The United States declared war of the United Kingdom because of three main issues.

First, the British had declared an economic blockade of France during the Napoleonic Wars.  Second, Britain also began forcing American sailors to serve on British ships in the Royal Navy  (impressment).  Thirdly, the British supported Native American tribes that were hostile against American expansion into their lands.

For their part, Americans hoped Britain would be too occupied with fighting Napoleon and that the Canadians would be happy to kick the British out of their country.

--Brock-Perry

What's in a Name? 'The Anglo-American War' Is There a New Name for the War of 1812?

From the November 12,2021, CVBJ.biz site  "Veterans Day:  These are the main wars the US has participated in."

This site is calling the War of 1812 the Anglo-American War (1812-1815).

Here is what it says:

"Also known as the 'Anglo-American War' or 'War of 1812'.  It was a war that pitted the United States against the United Kingdom and its Canadian colonies.

"Among other causes of the war are the restrictions placed on trade imposed by the United Kingdom because of the war  in Europe against France, the forced recruitment of US merchant sailors to serve in the British Royal Navy and British support of the indigenous peoples of North America who opposed the expansion of the US.

"The confrontations took place by land and sea.  286,730 Americans served, among these were 2,260 deaths and 4,505 wounded."

Well, Which is It?  --Brock-Perry

Southwest Georgia Played a Key Role in the War of 1812-- Part 1: The Causes of the War

 From the September 7, 2021, Albany (Georgia) Herald by Tom Seegmueller.

Sometimes referred to as America's Second War for Independence, the War of 1812 was fought against Britain and its Canadian and Indian allies.  Many Americans know about the battles along the country's northern borders, the iconic naval battles, the burning of the White House, Battle of Fort McHenry and Andrew Jackson victory at the Battle of New Orleans (after the war was over).

One of the primary reasons often cited as a reason for the war was the impressment of American sailors into the British Navy, estimated to have been as high as 15,000.

There is also proof that the British were stirring up the Indians, who were increasingly fearful of American encroachment on their lands.

Florida was under Spanish control at the time and that too was a threat to the U.S., especially in the state of Georgia.

--Brock-Perry

What Tecumseh Fought For-- Part 1: The Three Wars in 1812

From the October 26, 2020, New Yorker by Philip Deloria.

This is a book review, I believe of Peter Cozzen's joint effort called "Tecumseh and the Prophet:  The Shawnee Brothers Who defied a Nation."

The article had a lot about Tecumseh and his brother, the Prophet's efforts to unite a strong Indian confederacy to stem U.S. encroachment onto Indian lands and the War of 1812.  It is one of those new histories that paints only negative views of the United States.

I will just be concentrating on Tecumseh in the War of 1812.

Most histories portray the role Indians played in the War of 1812 as being incidental to their British allies, marauding along the backcountry fringes of the Atlantic  conflict.  In actuality, the United States was waging three intertwined wars at once.  The war concerned with trade restrictions and impressment of American sailors into the Royal Navy; the Creek War, which began as a Native conflict to halt settlement in the South; and Tecumseh's War, which started in 1811, but didn't conclude until 1815.

This last war was fought across Ohio, Indiana, Michigan, lower Canada, Illinois, Iowa and Missouri.  Tecumseh's War was not only a struggle for territory, but also Indian future in relation to the United States.

--Brock-Perry

USS Vixen (1803)-- Part 3: Lawrence, Ludlow and the HMS Moselle

BETWEEN WARS

The Vixen was placed in ordinary at Washington Navy Yard as soon as she got back from the Mediterranean.  She left the yard one year later and operated along the Atlantic Coast of the United States.  During this time, she was commanded by Lieutenant James "Don't Give Up the Ship" Lawrence and Charles Ludlow.

On 18 June 1810,  the Vixen came upon the brig-sloop HMS Moselle off Barbados, which opened fire on her with no provocation.  The Moselle's captain, Commander Henry Boys apologized, saying he had been unable to make out the Vixen's colors and that he had thought she was a French privateer he had been seeking.

And, of course, this was the era of impressment which was such a sticking point between the United States and Britain.

The Vixen suffered one casualty, a man who was wounded in the mouth by a splinter.

--Brock-Perry

American Privateers vs. U.S. Navy in the War of 1812-- Part 1: "Free Trade and Sailors' Rights"

Since I have been writing about the privateer Patriot.

From American Merchant Marine and Privateers of the War of 1812.

The War of 1812 was fought over the Merchant Marine.  The British were seizing American ships on the high seas, and forcing seamen (impressment) to join their navy.  In addition, American ships bound to Europe would be seized if they did not first make a stop at a British port.

Between 1802 and 1812, they seized or stopped nearly 1500 American vessels.

The war was fought primarily by American merchant ships because the U.S. Navy was so small.  The battle cry was "Free Trade and Sailors' Rights."    During the war, U.S. privateers and Navy ships  together captured some 30,000 prisoners, compared to the American Army's 6,000.

Value of privateer captured British prizes was almost $40 million.

--Brock-Perry

U.S. Navy in War of 1812-- Part 3: That Impressment Thing and Other Affronts Lead to War

The Chesapeake-Leopard Affair, as it came to be known, enraged the American public and embarrassed the Navy.  President Jefferson levied a big embargo against the British and the British Admiralty recalled the Leopard's commander and admitted the error.   The situation deescalated  and soon was replaced with Vice President Aaron Burr's  conspiracy and trial for treason.

Actually, the Chesapeake-Leopard Affair didn't end until 1820, when the disgraced American commander of the Cheasapeake, James Barron, challenged American naval hero Stephen Decatur to a duel stemming from it and killed Decatur.

But, impressments continued.  Since 1800, Great Britain had captured 917 American ships and impressed 6,257 American seamen.

On June 1, 1812, President James Madison spoke before Congress, citing British impressment of American sailors, disregard for American sovereignty and plundering of American commerce, and asked that a state of war be declared.

With support from the War Hawks, who were seeking to gain control of Canada, Congress declared war on June 18, 1812.  Ironically, the British had rescinded the Orders in Council two days earlier.

--Brock-Perry

U.S. Navy in the War of 1812-- Part 2: Impressment and the Chesapeake-Leopard Incident

After the Quasi War with France was settled in 1800 and the situation with the Barbary States was normalized in 1805, the major remaining threat to the U.S. Navy was clearly the British Navy.  The biggest thing the weak U.S. Navy had going for it was the almost uninterrupted war between Britain and France ever since the French Revolution.

This conflict intensified after Napoleon took over France in 1803.  To keep their ships manned, the British relied on impressment.  American sailors became a prime source for this.

In 1807, the British government increased their blockade on France, resulting in the stopping of American ships and the impressment of American sailors.  Then, on June 22, 1807, the British frigate HMS Leopard stopped the American frigate USS Chesapeake and opened fire when the American commander, James Barron, refused to let them come on board.  The British forced their way on board after a very one-sided fight with three American  dead and eighteen wounded and four sailors taken off for impressment.

Thomas Jefferson always believed that war between the two countries might have been declared right then had Congress been in session.

--Brock-Perry

Trouble On the High Seas-- Part 2: The "Leopard" and the "Chesapeake"

In 1807 the American warship Chesapeake was leaving the Virginia coast when the British ship Leopard came up from behind and gave a signal.  The Chesapeake took in sail and slowed down, and a British naval officer went over in a small boat.  He had orders to arrest a British sailor who, he said, was aboard the Chesapeake.

The American captain told him that the sailor he wanted was not aboard the ship, and he would not let him make a search.  The officer went back to the Leopard, and eight minutes later the British surprised the Chesapeake by firing at her.

The Chesapeake was a new ship, not ready for battle.  There were ropes and supplies all over her deck and only a few cannons were in place to fire.  The Americans were badly hit even before they could begin to shoot back.  After twenty men were wounded, the captain lowered his flag.  A British naval party came aboard, lined the crew of the Chesapeake, and found the man they were looking for.  They took him and three other seamen off the ship, and the Chesapeake went limping back to port.

Them's Fighting Words.  --Brock-Perry

Tennessee in the War of 1812-- Part 1: More of An Expansion Thing

From the Tennessee Encyclopedia of History and Culture.

Tennessee proudly gave its support to the United States upon the declaration of the War of 1812 in June 1812, but it seemed unlikely that the landlocked state would see much action.  Plus, being so, United States claims of maritime rights and impressment would have little impact.

However, the thirst for expansion into British-owned Canada in the north and Spanish Florida did bear on Tennessee.  The acquisition of Florida could open economic opportunities along the Gulf of Mexico.

Then, there was the Indian question, the Creeks most notably.

--Brock-Perry

A Prisoner of the British-- Part 5

The Americans were transferred to the Crown Prince which also held French prisoners and was moored at Gillingham Reach.  The American seamen on the Crown Prince had chiefly been impressed by the British before the war, but once it began, they gave themselves up as POWs, refusing to serve.

The British also didn't want them getting out and serving in the U.S. Navy.

--Brock-impre

Dartmoor Prison in Britain-- Part 3: Impatient Americans

From 1813 to March 1815, some 6.500 American sailors were imprisoned at Dartmoor.  They were both naval prisoners and impressed Americans seamen who had been discharged from British vessels for refusing to fight.

Even though this was a British prison and they were in charge, these inmates had a lot of say concerning what went on there.  They had their own government and culture.  Courts meted out punishment.  There was even a market, theater and gambling room.

About 1,000 of them were black.

The prisoners heard about the Treaty of Ghent and expected immediate release, but the British refused parole until the U.S. government ratified the treaty (which happened on 17 February 1815.  It took several weeks for the Americans at home to procure ships for prisoner transport home and this is when problems began.

--Brock-Perry

200 Years Ago: The Dartmoor Riots

APRIL 6, 1815:  American naval prisoners, mostly from privateers or pressed men who refused to fight against the United States, riot in Dartmoor Prison in Southwest Great Britain.

Frustrated in the delay of the repatriation and harsh living conditions, the unruly prisoners of war are fired on by British guards.  Seven Americans are killed and 31 wounded.

--Brock-Perry

How Well Do You Know the War of 1812?-- Part 2: The Answers

The questions are on the previous post.

1. Blockade of U.S. and impressment

2. British, Canadians, Indians and U.S.

3. France in Europe

4. Shawnee Chief Tecumseh (I missed this one)

5. Laura Secord

6. York, Upper Canada

7. Samuel Wilson

8. Battle of New Orleans

9. d.

How'd You Do? --Brock-Perry

Blacks a Key to War of 1812-- Part 2

Some 500 of the 6,000 Americans at the Battle of New Orlans were black.

Black sailors served on U.S. warships. Commodore Isaac Chauncey wrote, "I have nearly fifty Blacks on this boat and many of them are among the best of my men.

Oliver Hazard Perry commended the courage of his black sailors at the Battle of Lake Erie.

Three blacks: William Ware, Daniel Martin and John Stachan were taken off the USS Chesapeake and impressed into British service by the HMS Leopard on June 22, 1807.

More to Come. --Brock-Perry

Ships of Oak, Guns of Iron

From the December 18, 2012, Huntington (WV) News "Book Review: 'Ships of Oak, Guns of Iron': The War of 1812 Examined in Readable Detail on Its Bicentennial" reviewed by David M. Kinchen.

I am most interested in the naval aspects of any war so this book would be right up my line.

The book is written by Ronald D. Utt, 528 pages, $29.95. He blames the Royal Navy's impressment actions as the cause of the war. Low estimates put impressment at 2,500 and a high of 25,000 with some 7,500 by the start of the War of 1812.

The Royal Navy faced serious manpower shortages as Britain had been fighting Napoleon and had been at perpetual war for twenty years.

The book covers some land battles, but most of it centers on naval action (that's alright for me). The U.S. Navy had 17 ships at the start of the war that had to fight 500 British warships (though most were involved in the Napoleonic Wars). Utt says the "American courage, gunnery and skill could prove itself against daunting odds."

Signature battle was the USS Constitution vs, HMS Gueriere on August 19, 1812, which made Isaac Hull a national hero (this was actually a very lop-sided battle favoring the Constitution). His uncle, General William Hull, 59, a hero of the Revolutionary War, had surrendered Detroit without much of a fight just three days before the Constitution's victory.

Thomas Jefferson bears responsibility of appointing many of the disappointing American commanders.

--Brock-Perry

Mr. Jefferson's Gunboat Navy-- Part 1

Source: Mariner's Museum, Virginia.

Since I have been writing about United States War of 1812 gunboats, I though this article I found from last year was appropriate.  It also provides some background information on events leading up to the war.

By 1805, tension between the U.S. and Britain continued to mount.  America was angered by the blockade of France, impressment of American sailors and confiscation of our ships.  And, after the defeat of te French fleet at the October 1805 Battle of Trafalgar Britain held complete domination of the sea.

From 1800 to 1805 fifty-nine American merchant ships were taken by the British Navy.

From 1805 to 1807 about half of U.S. merchant ships, 469, were taken.

In the year 1807, there was the Chesapeake-Leopard Affair and the further impressment of 6,000 sailors from American ships.

Clearly, the countries were approaching the brink of war.

War Clouds On the Horizon.  --Brock-Perry

The NPS' Road to War

These were some of the major reasons leading to the War of 1812:

MARITIME ISSUES  Since 1803, the British Navy impressed 6,000 American merchant sailors which violated our neutrality.  Britain and France were at war and making American trade with Europe difficult.  Between 1807 and 1812, some 900 American merchant ships were seized.

POLITICS  The Democratic Republican Party was in power, but had split into factions.  A war would rally the party together and stifle the anti-war Federalists.

NATIONAL HONOR  Americans were outraged by the trampling of perceived national rights.

WESTERN EXPANSION  The British were an obstacle to land opportunities in the West and on the northern borders..  Plus, there was the tempting prize of British Canada just waiting for annexation.  A victory in a war would also stop British support of Indian resistance to westward expansion.

Possibly Biting Off More Than One Could Chew In This Case.  --Brock-Perry

The Fort Dearborn Massacre-- Part 5

Far from Fort Dearborn, Britain and France were locked in a life-or-death struggle.  Napoleon and France controlled mainland Europe.  Britain continued to rule the seas. Frustrated, both sides resorted to economic warfare, each imposing a blockade on the other.  As a neutral country, the U.S. claimed a right to continue trading with France which England opposed.  They began stopping American ships and taking off any British-born sailors in what they cal;led impressment.

The United States declared war and invaded Canada which had remained loyal to England, even after American independence.  Lacking forces to fight the Americans in the interior of the country, the British enlisted Indian allies who were fighting the onslaught of settlers flooding into their lands.

In the spring of 1812, the famous chief Black Hawk put the Indian view in the spotlight, "Why did the Great Spirit ever send the whites to this island, to drive us from our homes, and introduce among us poisonous liqours, disease and death?"

More to Come.  --Brock-Perry

The War Not Popular in Maine

From the June 17th Maine Morning Sentinel "War of 1812 very unpopular war in Maine" by Kelly Bouchard.

John Diguo was a 20-year-old shipwright from Cape Elizabeth and on the brig Spitfire on his way to New York City May 1, 1811, when a British warship captured the American ship and Diguo found himself impressed into service of the Royal Navy.

He became one of the some 10,000 Americans to become impressed, one of the reasons for the war.

The U.S. declaration of war on June 18, 1812, caused Maine to separate from Massachusetts and it went on to become a state in 1820.  The move to statehood was led by William King, a Bath businessman who served in the war and later became the state's first governot.

The whole of New England opposed the war and came close to seceding from the fledgling country.

It's War.  --Brock-Perry